March 4, 2024
I often say that being the Atlanta Fed president is the best job I've had. Among the things I love about my job is that it's never dull. I get to talk to people from numerous walks of life all over the Southeast and the country and learn from their interesting perspectives about how the economy is and is not working for them. And tracking the US economy is endlessly fascinating because it's always changing, so there is always something new to learn.
The flip side is there's always something to fret over. I often say that I get paid to worry, and, though I usually say it jokingly, there is real truth to that.
So, where is my attention, or worry, focused these days? Let me communicate that by relating three messages that encapsulate my monetary policy stance in this moment.
But before I get into that, you already know that the Federal Open Market Committee decides on monetary policy, most notably by setting the federal funds rate, which influences various market interest rates including those that lenders assess for auto loans, mortgages, and business loans. You may not know that the roster of voting Committee participants shifts every year. This year, I'm on the roster of voters, which is a distinct privilege. But that reality doesn't change the fact that in this message I speak only for myself and not anyone else on the Committee.
Inflation has slowed but risks remain
Message one begins with price stability. Inflation decelerated more quickly than even optimists expected over the past year, declining from over 5 percent to 2.6 percent during 2023, as measured by the Fed's preferred yardstick, the Personal Consumption Expenditures (PCE) price index.
I believe inflation is on track to slowly return to the Committee's 2 percent objective, alongside a strong labor market and expanding economic activity. That's unusual. Typically, unemployment rises when the Fed tightens monetary policy to subdue outbreaks of inflation like the one we experienced beginning in 2021. So, a return to price stability without deep economic pain would constitute a resounding success by historical standards.
Just how different is this episode? Research tells us that when the Fed tightened policy aggressively in previous cycles, the unemployment rate rose by about 1.5 percentage points, on average. That hasn't happened this time, so far at least. When the Committee began raising the federal funds rate in March 2022, unemployment was 3.6 percent. After 11 rate hikes, January's unemployment rate stood at 3.7 percent.
The unemployment rate has remained benign as monthly employment growth has held up remarkably well. Revisions from the Bureau of Labor Statistics bumped up the job growth numbers for late 2023, and the original report for January exceeded all expectations. Importantly, data also showed that job creation in January broadened beyond the small number of sectors—notably, health care—that had accounted for an outsize share of growth in the second half of 2023. I don't overreact to one month's data, to be sure. But a job market that had been cooling—effectively slowing to a normal state—has shown fresh signs of strength.
The story is similar for economic growth. Econometric evidence suggests that past tightening cycles led to about a half-percentage-point decline in real gross domestic product over two to two-and-a-half years—a recession, basically. Bucking that history, real GDP grew at a 3.3 percent annual rate in the fourth quarter of 2023 by the Bureau of Economic Analysis's initial estimate, and at a 3.1 percent clip for all of 2023. That's a more robust performance than private sector forecasts anticipated and, quite frankly, more robust than what we at the Atlanta Fed expected.
As promising as that all sounds, the resounding success I mentioned—a return to price stability without economic pain—is hardly assured. That is largely thanks to the second of my three points: because uncertainty is rampant in the domestic and global economies, it is premature to claim victory in the fight against inflation.
January inflation readings came in surprisingly high, the latest reminder that the path to price stability is not a straight line. I need to see more progress to feel fully confident that inflation is on a sure path to averaging 2 percent over time. Only when I gain that confidence will I feel the time is right to begin lowering the federal funds rate to dial back restrictive monetary policy.
That brings me to my third point. Uncertainty emanates from widely varying risks. Some risks stem from good economic news. These are what economists would call "upside risks" to my economic and policy outlook, and continued strong progress on inflation and job growth count among them.
There is another upside risk I'll highlight. As my staff and I have talked to business decision-makers in recent weeks, the theme we've heard rings of expectant optimism. Despite business activity broadly moderating, firms are not distressed. Instead, many executives tell us they are on pause, ready to deploy assets and ramp up hiring when the time is right.
I asked one gathering of business leaders if they were ready to pounce at the first hint of an interest rate cut. The response was an overwhelming "yes."
If that scenario were to unfold on a large scale, it holds the potential to unleash a burst of new demand that could reverse the progress toward rebalancing supply and demand. That would create upward pressure on prices. This threat of what I'll call pent-up exuberance is a new upside risk that I think bears scrutiny in coming months.
Price pressures are still widespread
Further, while headline inflation is moving in the right direction, a closer analysis reveals that it's not time to give the all-clear signal. First, the number of individual prices that are climbing briskly is still higher than we typically see when inflation is under control. The share of items in the PCE price index rising at rates above 5 percent remains well above the roughly 20 percent share that would be consistent with inflation at its target. So, price pressures are still a little broader than I'd prefer.
Second, one of the many inflation metrics my staff and I follow is the Dallas Fed's trimmed-mean PCE inflation tool. It removes outliers at the very high and very low ends of the price change distribution to arrive at a central tendency, and it has often been a good predictor of future inflation. Over the past several months, the Dallas trimmed-mean measure has been stuck at around a 2.6 percent annualized increase. That suggests that underlying inflation is still loitering just outside the neighborhood of 2 percent.
There are also downside risks to my outlook. Many of these involve geopolitical concerns. Conflicts in Europe and the Middle East haven't yet had significant impacts on energy markets, but they still could. Severe drought at the Panama Canal and terrorist actions in the Red Sea threaten to complicate global shipping and exert upward pressure on prices. Budget squabbles in the United States could rattle financial markets. There are other downside risks, but you get the idea.
Overall, on the topic of risks, one takeaway from all this is a recognition that the risks to achieving price stability have balanced out. That is, there are now two ways things could go wrong.
For most of this inflationary episode, we have focused primarily on bringing down inflation. That has meant tightening monetary policy. The central risk, then, was not tightening enough and thus allowing inflation to flourish unabated.
Now, as headline inflation has come down and the nominal policy rate has stayed restrictive, there is a risk of keeping interest rates elevated for too long and inflicting unnecessary damage on the labor market and macroeconomy. On the other hand, there is a still a risk of unintentionally going too easy on inflation—unwinding policy restriction too soon. That would risk allowing inflation to stall at a level above our 2 percent target, or even giving the economy such a boost that a flare of new activity sparks renewed price pressures and the inflation rate begins to climb.
So, we seek a delicate balance: keep the economy thriving without allowing high inflation to persist. Finding that balance won't be easy. The good news is the labor market and economy are prospering, furnishing the Committee the luxury of making policy without the pressure of urgency. Of course, that can change.
In closing, let me say that while formulating monetary policy is a complex endeavor, I find it helpful to distill my views into a couple of key terms to communicate with the public and financial markets. In view of the policy context I've described, my watchwords now are grateful and vigilant. I am grateful for the substantial progress we have seen in reducing the inflation rate toward the Committee's target of an average of 2 percent over time. Yet I am vigilant in continually staying on the lookout for developments that could derail that hard-won progress.
Thank you for reading, and please explore our website for more useful and interesting information about the economy. After all, the economy belongs to all of us.
Dr. Raphael W. Bostic took office June 5, 2017, as the 15th president and chief executive officer of the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. He is responsible for all the Bank's activities, including monetary policy, bank supervision and regulation, and payment services. He serves on the Federal Open Market Committee, the monetary policymaking body of the Federal Reserve System.
From 2012 to 2017, Bostic was the Judith and John Bedrosian Chair in Governance and the Public Enterprise at the Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California (USC).
He arrived at USC in 2001 and served as a professor in the School of Policy, Planning, and Development. His research has spanned many fields, including home ownership, housing finance, neighborhood change, and the role of institutions in shaping policy effectiveness. He was director of USC's master of real estate development degree program and was the founding director of the Casden Real Estate Economics Forecast.
Bostic also served USC's Lusk Center for Real Estate as the interim associate director from 2007 to 2009 and as the interim director from 2015 to 2016. From 2016 to 2017, he was the chair of the center's Governance, Management, and Policy Process Department.
From 2009 to 2012, Bostic was the assistant secretary for policy development and research at the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In that role, he was a principal adviser to the secretary on policy and research, helping the secretary and other principal staff make informed decisions on HUD policies and programs, as well as on budget and legislative proposals.
Bostic worked at the Federal Reserve Board of Governors from 1995 to 2001, first as an economist and then as a senior economist in the monetary and financial studies section, where his work on the Community Reinvestment Act earned him a special achievement award.
He serves on many boards and advisory committees, including Georgia's Partnership for Inclusive Innovation. He is also a member of Harvard University's Board of Overseers. He previously served as the chair of the board of directors of the United Way of Greater Atlanta and chair for the Metro Atlanta Chamber of Commerce, and a member of the Advisory Committee on Economic Inclusion at the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.
Bostic graduated from Harvard University in 1987 with a combined major in economics and psychology. He earned his doctorate in economics from Stanford University in 1995.
The Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta serves the Sixth Federal Reserve District, which covers Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, and parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee. The Bank has branches in Birmingham, Jacksonville, Miami, Nashville, and New Orleans.
Updated February 2024Bostic, Raphael W. April 18, 2020. "Opinion: Fed's Working to Aid Economy, Post-Pandemic Recovery." Atlanta Journal-Constitution.
Bostic, R. and Johnson, M. January 15, 2020. "BankThink: How to keep community banks thriving." American Banker.
Boarnet, M. G.; Bostic, R. W.; Rodnyansky, S.; Burinskiy, E.; Eisenlohr, A.; Jamme, H.; and Santiago-Bartolomei, R. 2020. "Do High Income Households Reduce Driving More When Living near Rail Transit?" Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 80.
Bostic, R. W.; Jakabovics, A.; Voith, R.; and Zielenbach, S. 2019. "Mixed-Income LIHTC Developments in Chicago: A First Look at Their Income Characteristics and Spillover Impacts." In What Works to Promote Inclusive, Equitable Mixed-Income Communities, edited by Mark L. Joseph and Amy T. Khare, cluster #1, section A, no. 6.
Boarnet, M. G.; Bostic, R. W.; Burinskiy, E.; Rodnyansky, S.; and Prohofsky, A. 2018. "Gentrification near Rail Transit Areas: A Micro-Data Analysis of Moves into Los Angeles Metro Rail Station Areas." Research Reports, University of California National Center for Sustainable Transportation.
Bostic, R. W. and Molaison, D. Forthcoming. "Hurricane Katrina: Devastation, Possibilities and Prospects." In Economic and Risk Assessment of Hurricane Katrina, University of Southern California Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events.
Bostic, R.; Kim, A.; and Valenzuela, A. 2016. "An Introduction to the Special Issue: Contesting the Streets 2: Vending and Public Space in Global Cities." Cityscape 18(1): 3–10.
Bostic, R. W. and Ellen, I. G. 2014. "Introduction: Special Issue on Housing Policy in the United States." Journal of Housing Economics 24: 1–3.
Bostic, R. 2014. "CDBG at 40: Opportunities and Obstacles." Housing Policy Debate 24(1): 297–302. doi:10.1080/10511482.2013.866973.
Bostic, R. W. 2014. "Resilient Economic Development: Challenges and Opportunities." In University of Illinois Chicago Urban Forum, edited by M. Pagano. University of Illinois Press.
Bostic, R. W. and McFarlane, A. 2013. "The Proposed Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing Regulatory Impact Analysis." Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 15(3): 257.
Bostic, R. W.; Thornton, R. L.; Rudd, E. C.; and Sternthal, M. J. 2012. "Health in All Policies: The Role of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and Present and Future Challenges." Health Affairs 31(9): online.
Graddy, E., with Bostic, R. W. 2010. "The Role of Private Agents in Affordable Housing Policy." Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 20, special issue: 81–99.
Bostic, R.; Gabriel, S.; and Painter, G. 2009. "Housing Wealth, Financial Wealth, and Consumption: New Evidence from Micro Data." Regional Science and Urban Economics 39(1): 79–89.
Bostic, R. W., with Engel, K.; McCoy, P.; A. Pennington-Cross; and Wachter, S. 2008. "State and Local Anti-Predatory Lending Laws: The Effect of Legal Enforcement Mechanisms." Journal of Economics and Business 60(1–2): 47–66.
An, X. and Bostic, R. W. 2008. "GSE Activity, FHA Feedback, and Implications for the Efficacy of the Affordable Housing Goals." Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics 36(2): 207–31.
An, X.; Bostic, R. W.; Deng, Y.; and Gabriel, S. 2007. "GSE Loan Purchases, the FHA, and Housing Outcomes in Targeted, Low-Income Neighborhoods." In Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs, edited by G. Burtless and J.R. Pack. Brookings Institute Press.
Sloane, D. C., with Bostic, R. W. and Lewis, L. B. 2007. "The Neighborhood Dynamics of Hospitals as Land Owners." Lincoln Land Institute publication.
Bostic, R. W., with Longhofer, S. D. and Redfearn, C. 2007. "Land Leverage: Decomposing Home Price Dynamics." Real Estate Economics 35 (2): 183–208.
Bostic, R. W. and Prohofsky, A. 2006. "Enterprise Zones and Individual Welfare: A Case Study of California." Journal of Regional Science 46 (2): 175–203.
Bostic, R. W. and Gabriel, S. A. 2006. "Do the GSEs Matter to Low-Income Housing Markets? An Assessment of the Effects of GSE Loan Purchase Activity on California Housing Outcomes." Journal of Urban Economics 59: 458–75.
Black, H.; Bostic, R. W.; Robinson, B.; and Schweitzer, R. 2005. "Do CRA-Related Events Affect Shareholder Wealth? The Case of Bank Mergers." The Financial Review 40(4): 575–86.
Bostic, R. W. with Robinson, B. 2004. "Community Banking and Mortgage Credit Availability: The Impact of CRA Agreements." Journal of Banking and Finance 28: 3069–95.
Bostic, R. W., with Calem. P. S. and Wachter, S. M. 2004. "Hitting the Wall: Credit as an Impediment to Homeownership." In Building Assets, Building Credit: Creating Wealth in Low-Income Communities, edited by N. Retsinas and E. Belsky. Joint Center for Housing Studies and Brookings Institution Press.
Bostic, R. W., with Redfearn, C. 2004. "Book Review [The Color of Credit: Mortgage Discrimination, Research Methodology and Fair Lending Enforcement, by Stephen L. Ross and John Yinger]." Journal of Regional Science 44(1):162–65.
Bostic, R. W., with Aaronson, D.; Huck, P.; and Townsend, R. 2004. "Supplier Relationships and Small Business Use of Trade Credit." Journal of Urban Economics 55(1): 46–67.
Bostic, R. W., with Barakova, I.; Calem, P.; and Wachter, S. 2003. "Does Credit Quality Matter for Homeownership?" Journal of Housing Economics 12(4): 318–36.
Bostic, R. W. 2003. "A Test of Cultural Affinity in Home Mortgage Lending." Journal of Financial Services Research 23(2): 89–112.
Bostic, R., with Robinson, B. 2003. "Do CRA Agreements Increase Lending?" Real Estate Economics 31(1): 23–51.
Bostic, R. W., with Calem, P. S. 2003. "Privacy Restrictions and the Use of Data at Credit Repositories." In Credit Reporting Systems and the International Economy, edited by Margaret J. Miller. Boston: MIT Press.
Bostic, R. W., with Martin, R. 2003. "Black Homeowners as Gentrifying Force? Neighborhood Dynamics in the Context of Minority Homeownership." Urban Studies 40(12).
Bostic, R. W. 2002. "Equal Access to Credit." In 25 Years of Credit Research, edited by Mike Staten. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.
Bostic, R., with Canner, G. B. 2000. "Consolidation in Banking: How Recent Changes Have Affected the Provision of Banking Services." The Neighborworks Journal.
Bostic, R., with Avery, R. B. and Canner, G. B. 2000. "Highlights of a Survey of the Performance and Profitability of CRA-Related Lending." Housing America Update.
Bostic, R., with Avery, R. B. and Canner, G. B. 2000. "CRA Special Lending Programs." Federal Reserve Bulletin 86: 711–31.
Bostic, R., with Avery, R. B.; Calem, P. S.; and Canner, G. B. 2000. "Credit Scoring: Statistical Issues and Evidence from Credit Bureau Files." Real Estate Economics 28: 523–47.
Bostic, R., with Canner, G. B. 1998. "New Information on Small Business and Small Farm Lending: The 1996 CRA Data." Federal Reserve Bulletin 84(1): 1–21.
Bostic, R., with Avery, R. B. and Samolyk, K. A. 1998. "The Role of Personal Wealth in Small Business Finance." Journal of Banking and Finance 22: 1019–61Bostic, R.; Bower, S.; Shy, O.; Wall, L.; and Washington, J. September 2020. "Digital Payments and the Path to Financial Inclusion." Promoting Safer Payments Innovation Series no. 20-1.
Raphael Bostic. "Quantitative Frightening?" macroblog. January 16, 2019.
Raphael Bostic. "What Does the Current Slope of the Yield Curve Tell Us?," macroblog. August 23, 2018.
Raphael Bostic. "Thoughts on a Long-Run Monetary Policy Framework" macroblog series:
"Framing the Question." March 26, 2018.
"Part 2: The Principle of Bounded Nominal Uncertainty." March 27, 2018.
"Part 3: An Example of Flexible Price-Level Targeting." March 28, 2018.
"Part 4: Flexible Price-Level Targeting in the Big Picture." April 2, 2018.
Raphael Bostic. "A Big-Picture Look at the Economy. 
" ECONversations. February 21, 2018.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and Anthony Orlando. "'These Local Problems Do Have Some National Solutions': A Conversation about Inequality." February 27, 2020.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and James Fallows. "Wings over America: A Conversation with Author James Fallows." . January 2, 2020.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and Alessandro Acquisti. "Speaking Publicly on Privacy: A Conversation about Digital Privacy." April 2, 2019.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and Jerome Adams. "Health Is Wealth": A Conversation with the U.S. Surgeon General." January 3, 2019.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and Raj Chetty. "'A Kid Should Have a Fair Shot': A Discussion of Economic Mobility." October 22, 2018.
Raphael Bostic (interviewer) and David Lusk. "'It's a Really Dramatic Change': A Discussion of the Economics of Food." October 12, 2018.
Raphael Bostic. "'It's a Special Job': A Conversation with Atlanta Fed President Raphael Bostic." April 27, 2018.
